' .•"

. - ..

Dou.1.-chobor 1''olk 1~ 3dicine

.-

;.

Teresa Voykin
.-=:·

,

..
...
___ .... :_ ·'·-· .· .. ;

.

.

--~.:

--·: •. J

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·. _.... ...:)·\ ...... -'~-. - ·:
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SELKIRK COUEGE UBRARY

1

. '.·:

:{'.itil~

This essay attempts to discuss, present a~d Slli'TI.:.~arize
various aspects of Doukhobor Folk medicine.

It includes

a brief historical outline: v1hy DoukhoC?or Folk :medicine

still survives in the twentieth century;

it:

discusses

the reluctance Dou."l{hobor healers exhibit in revealing
their Folk practices to members outside and even inside

the COilh'11U..YJ.i ty.
The essay, also, presents a few personal accounts
obtained from varous people who either pa::-ticipated in
a healing, acted as healers or observed a hea~ing.
a number of healing prayers, "mal a+v

ari"

0
0 " ·
~,·..,.\.A.

Thus

cure methods

are included.
Because heaiD:gs, especially healing prayers &~d
healing methods incorporating specific rituals and items,
are interconnected with God a~d therefore sacred,
Dou.1..chobors' dislike revealing these. practices.

Consequently,

the members of the Doukhobor commtt..-ii ty, •..vho contributed.
to this paper~ desire to remain an.onymous.

2

The major source of this material is based on
interviews obtained from various Dou..lchobor individuals
of various a§es •. Since most of the interviewees-'.
spoke little or no English) direct quotes are not used.
The essay also incldes several healing prayers.

Unfor-

tunately I° 'Was U..l1.able to translate them> due to the
individual-like handwriting of the person; they are
included in the essay but in the form I received them
1
in. Note: The.people I interviewed were all in some
way related to me.

__ /

Doukhobors, like many .other folk-type societiest
practiced and continue practicing healing by traditional
methods.

In the early twentieth century, up u...vitil about

· the 19JOs-40s, Doukhobors virtually had no access to
doctors :or dentists; as. a result they relied. heavily on
.
.
Doukhobor .f·~t~;}2-~:~~e:::-s .. , T~e- folk. healers t only tools
were various . heal~ng rneth9ds which were di--rid. sd into.
two distinct types y the· :.airilcst "s~ie...."'1-tif ic" cause-effect
approach and the "superstitious" a:pproach.
The folk healer used speciai healing prayers,
"maleat-ve", an.d other ri tu.als a..Dd i terns.· The female folk
healer was called "Babka", meanin;; old wo~an; the male
folk healer was knovr.n as ••Det", meaning old man.

Usuaily,

a;Lthough not always, these healers were the elder members
of the community.

did .-.o+ 'ori9\~-e, (.,,....., C.ar1:4ct.:?~ . \i

Dou~~obor healin~~was

brought from Russia-during_the

late nineteenth century a.-vid early twentieth century.
Doukhobors, who were. Russian peass'lts, im.migrated
.
to
Can.ada in the lB90s-l900s after :m;1ch religious persecution
in Russia.

'tii th them they brought t:ieir traditional way

of life v1l1ich stressed a commlma~~type of

existe~ce;.

'.

as a result, few Doukhobors earned an income.

Those

Doukh::>bors / 'Nho did earn ari inc om~ t turned· "their earnings
over to the comn1uni ty. · Thus few could afford m-=dical
doctors.

Consequently, folk medicine

a~d

cures continued

to be, as in Russia, their only sourc? of healing.
Of course, money was not the only facto:::- v;hich pre'vented obtaining the services of a doctor, when needed;
the other fac~or wa~ that most, if not all;

Dou~mobor;p

had complete· confidence in their tradition al medicine.
Unlike the doctor, who relied upon his

L~str:.L~~nts

~--

for

'.1ealing, 'folk ·healers relied up·Jn both inst'u:ients
..
and God.~
This concept o'f combi:i.ing the spiritual with the physical
in order to heal appeared more reasonable to the Doukhobor,
for the Douk..liobor' s basic ·wa:y of life reflec-:ed both the
•

I

spiritual and the physical.

They were· a religious people
.
who readily worked for long hours a'1.d believed that to
be· CC!cupied at a..11· times was a virtue.
·However~

in the m.id-twentisth century,. commu.'1.alwlife

bega.1 to disintegrate.

Doukhobors,

earning for themselves.

By the 1950s a'1.d 1960s much of

now~

bega1 working

a.~d

the traditional ·Dou_1.c:hobor way of life had changed.
Doukho bors, now, possessed the· fur1ds for medic.al expenses
and were more willing to ace e_pt ''scientific" medicine.

5

With the

disintegrat~on

of co:m..11unalflife, Doukhobor

children beg~~ attending school a'!d intermingling with the
rest of Canadian society; as a result- the you..viger generations
began losing the.language and some
a.vicestors.

of the customs of their

Consequently folk_ healing, ·which had been

widely_ practiced in the beginning of the century we.."11.t;
into decline.

It is now almost exclusivelv
nracticed·
.J
•
~

by the very old people, usually those in their seventies
a.vid eighti_es.

./"'/

But even this generation has forgotten much

of the healing methods, such as "blood-let"ting", bone-set·ting, 211d blood-stopping, which were ~--Ylown by their parents
and grandparents.

This is mostly due to lack of need /

_,/

\vhich arose when medical science beca.11e ac'ceptable to the
people.
;_'Folkhealing is nmv ~nos_tly practiced on young
to :protect theni 'against the ·,;evil eye"----0~ ~···

childre~

o( glas~ye";

to help the child ·grow faster and healthier~ to remove
psychological type .lllnesses. 3uch as fear, bedwetting,
nervousne_$ts a.D.d excessive crying.

Most healers avoid

interferi..."?g with medical science; that is)healers no
longer set bones, blood-stop, or blood-let.
~eal_ers

Instead...,f
,. olk
.

provide the healing prayers, if desired, t'J :-ielp

the healing.

However, in cases such as arthritis arid

6

rheu'Tiatism wh2re doctors are ~sually lli'1.successful in
healing, folk healers then endeavor to use the old methods
of' healing.
Folk healing 1 although practiced by a few old people
in the com_,_'Tiur_i ty, is usually used on family menbers or
relatives.

Unlike the days of the Dou..1-chobor co211u.n.al

life, where a £ew Babkas or Dets
..._ were the heilers and
everyone kn~w ·:·1ho they were~ the healers of today are
usually only known to f·a"'l.lily relatives al'.ld to some extent
to their contemporaries.

This

secrecy~

is not actually

deliberat2; it is usually due- to a lack of interest.

,__.-----

.-~-·

.

Since folk healing is largely· spiritual·;· it ·is ··believed
to;be sacred; thus it.is jealously guarded fros the
outside world, that is

p~ople

oth<sr tha.'1. Doukhobors.

This suspic.lo'.ls guard.ing of the healing methods and prayers._,,.,.--'·
is :done to protect their heal:J.ng po·wers.

It also prevents

insincere individuals3 vrho look upon the healings as anms:tn.g,
from gaining access.

A healer believes that if such· a

per_son participates in the healing •isomething bad;, could
happen, probably. not :to the outsider s_ince he _"knew no
better" but to the healer who did "Y.-.now better".
Folk healing is also guarded from certain people inside
the co!Tl.m1:-Yli t:,r; these people usually are insincere and openly
derisive of healing.

In the case of su-:::~h an

individual,

who is a D·'.)ukh')bor and has been brought up as a Doukhobor,

._/

7

preventi::m of his participation is carried out~ ur1less
the person is not psychologically fit.

This is because

a i:•ell :person from inside the co:m:.llun.i ty "k,.'1.ovvs better" ;
therefore since he openly derides the various prayers
.
t,-. - ! . / /
a.."'1.d activities, he knowingly commits a."l acl:.agains
t..:TOO ..

,,,.,,,...-···

'J?hus a heal er t who allows such a person t:J participate,
he.-?t..t.t.<

also commits the act again.st God.

'l'herefore-thel\.could.

lose his abilj,. ty to heal aYJ.d/naybe worse, .Li...u. iJl.el' the
insincere person could have "something happen" to him.

This is probably another reason v:hy f,"Jlk healing is mostly
practiced by the old :people; they are believed. to have
the ability to exercise their kno'Nledge v;isely and carefully.· But as a consequense less a"id. les.s 9eople are
t'fl..._,0 ea<llr'ation
ac nui"ri"na'1
~....
_ ...
0
J.

-in

-1..,.l.

DOt,.1r'n.
...t~:.. ... 0 'onr
-'- .t..4'("\l'.:'-'-""- T.iicrl-i<"'i·no
!.·-.--..:.._v .............

This

guarded.."less prevents collection of prayers and methods.
However, due to the decreasing pop·c...1lari ty of healing, more
,
.
..,
and more Doukhobor healers are oeco::iung J_ess rigid in
sharing their Y-."'1.owledge.
.
In the following pages maleatve aYld other healing methods
'Nill be presented and discussed.

These folk :medicines 'Here

obtained from folk· .healers a.D..d pe:c-sons who had le<..:.rned
th~

:folk healing but a:ce. !lot practi~ing folk healers.

These

folk medicines have been di vid·2d into two categories -- .
healing with a

8

0 ""~ 0 ct
'"' 1 Se -..,,..L..L
C """"'
~

-l-y..,....~
v yt::

t1.,l. S

m~d·
~·
.. t:: l<-.;lne,
_._ -'

l:""'.
::o a

-ffi:

or:==>-

"s 0.-. .i· 0...
--nti·..C>..Ll- C"

approach to curing the ailment.
· I further divided the "superstitious" healing into
)

• j--

healing prayers and healing methods.
insta~ces

Hmvev~r_; in some

the healing methods contain a healing prayer~~

9

Superstitious-Type Healing

1- p'i( /;FE;L

S Piie tr Ui{l[J.e-q v µJ (/.
The use of the word "superstitious" in this instaYJ.ce .;'( w1'-:....

ic not used fo·c ·any derogatory reasons.

I (/IS

I

F~-U.

It merely meaYJ.s

S.eo /l.f~i)/

11.tµe ;:::J/La

that certain aspec.ts in the folk medicine do not
deal with cause-effect type relations.

Rather the unex-

plainable is 2xplained parapsycholog~cai1y. fjr example
explaining a pain as caused by S]iri ts rather than by·

physical means·. ·Also the use of specific ri -':uals
and items which do not have a.""1.y "scientific" con..YJ.ection
with the

illness~

nor the cure.

In "superstitious-type healing" there appears tQ
exist· a bond between the psychological al""ld the physical..__ .....
as-0°,.+o-r
h 0- a1- -ino-.
..:.. ..._.._ '{>·
.......
- b

"Rxa..ri:rpl_es
of this. relationship
is.
-

-

shown by ·wart healing t

i~emoval

(>Ci VK_

.

of pain.

although the cures ap:eeg) there exis.ts no

In both instaYJ.ces,
.

exp~_a11.atiorr.., of

vihy this happ8nS, Oth·er tha--1 parapsyC~'lologically.,--the

only other alternative may be the psychological influence on tµe physical.

Maleat-v-e
same·
-------,...__ also exhibit this
..

phenmnena, where cures 81:'9 hot expected to occur simply

py reci tin;~( healing prayers, the::;r astonishingly avid "unscientifically" doc
I dividc;d this categorJ into two groiips b8'.5ause
Itlaleatve are healing prayers a..'1.d .ca.'1. be used in various

-~

.ri tu2.l3.

Howev2r he3.ling methods depend' upon specific

lC:

ritual and it~~s; they also depend upon the maleatve.

·--··can

Whereas the maleatve
.

be recited without the healing

methods, the ?_'superstitious" __heali~g meth?ds
performe~

without the maleatve.

methods ane also very different.

-

··'f

ca.~_;1ot

MEJ-e::rtve aYld healing

One relies on .recitationt

maleatve; the. other on physical symbols or i terns.

\

be

Healir1g I';1ethods _

Healing l':Ie:thods are characterized by s;/111bolism and
the lack of parallelism v-ri th the cause of the illness.
·This type of healing uses various types of
the cure.

rt>rpquen+ly ivhi +
J..

-

...

v~

t

_

0

1.1.....,.

t

which
.......
~·-

.1....

i· s

s~~bols

in

a .l:"
nare cn-_1
or an.d ther·e.....,

fore stands for purity and to purifyt is stressed in the
healLvigs; eg. 1Hhi te cloths 1 white strings t _1,.1hi te trees such
as poplars •. Other symbolic items are: - t~e· :;;ot?,.to,.

...·

which ·is .believed to drmv off "bad airs er spirits" i.
vrater ci...'1.d firet 'Nhich represent purifyLvig or tlea.vising;·<
grave dirt, which symboliz~ deathj. water ~:;j_g? can also
r.epresent the aliotic
fluid.,
/t
.
,. avid thus rebirth.

These are

but a few symbols tl].at are used in "supersti c::..ous-type','
healing methods.
The healing methods whicn were collected .vere:
1

-Grave
- Cure.
' The

i)

J?reaveav:at or nailing down ( fc..stening dovrn.).

..l /.
l

iii)

·whispering over water.

iv)

Removal of warts.

v)

Gapyachea ban.~e or hot cans (hot glasses) c

vi. )

' .
.
.!Jan.cing
ca.vis.

1

ll

---

Preaveavat

-

Preaveavat or Nailing Down (Fastening Dovm) is performed
r
.
three to four days before a-full moon. It ma:;'foe done
throughout the year: however spring is preferable.

Nailing

·
,.,
•
t:ne
'
l-+v cures illnessest
Do
, •m
: 1
is
pe rf crm .0. . a' '""'uring
_ aay.
~'

such as ;.,ed "'°'+t; '11.afear; nervousnous a"ld if a.child's
0)
"""

.

1
'iV.~.v

-L..

grovrth is stu.n.ted.

This folk healing was contriouted

by a ninety year old Doukh'.)D•)r 'N8I!l&"l who is a folk healer.
Items requ~red:
patient
.-nail ·clippers
scissors
white flax string or unwaxed dental floss
vvhi te cotton 9loth

ill'J3trat.icn i:

i tem3 required for preq_yeavat
from f!llJ personal coiTection

12

Other items required:
sharp knife

-br4e brace q_ l? n

ham..rner

·From the patient, nails from every toe a.~d finger should
be clipped a~d p~aced onto a white cloth.

Then with the

scissors, a.small bunch of hair sho~ld be trimmed from
the back of the head and from the sides of the head~ ($.bout

1/2 irich above each ear}.

Thus hair should be ·removed from

only three spots on the head.
The three bunches of hair are then placed. with the
nails.

Next remove a length of stringt so that one end

of the string touches the top of the head o.f the :patient
and the.other end.touches ,the floor.
or height of the person.

This is the length

Once the height is obtained roll

this length of string into a ball a.""ld place it with the
other items on the white cloth.
With another length of string measure around the head
of the patient,· so that the string lies ovBr the· forehead.
diagra.'1' df the .top of tl1e
head

to

string

·illustration 2: Diagra.rns att e::ipting to s:·1.0w l'l.1ere string
should be placed.

lJ

This string is then also rolled up and placed with the
other items belonging to the patient.
. \

illustration g~ ·

Strings, hair a.-rid nails shovm in
this photograph which were obtained
fro:n a ;patient.
frorn my personal photograph collection.

14

Next the patientTs arms and bac};: ·width are measured.
The healer runs the flax f'rom the longest f'in.ger,· along

the a...YLJl,,across the back of·the person, across the other
arm to the longest finger of this arm.

Meanwhile, the

!

patients arms are stretched out parallel to th:? floor.

~

_,..)....~---~·-----'+-.__s:-t_r_in_g---.....;--~-~.-~z$.

~~·--"-~~~n~-"-~~~·t

bbdy
1 .

I

i

l

. j

;
•\

I
·illustration: 4:

/\

legs

\,

Measuring· arm lengxhs ar:.d back.

When the arms and back are measured, this third str:L'lg

is rolled up a~d placed with the other items on tha white
cloth.

15

illl_;lstration 5:

All items, strings~-hai~ a~d nails~
are sho;,m on a white cloth.
Picture from ovm personal collection.

16

The edges of the cloth containing all the patient~
nails, hair and measurements, are brought together and then
tied with a white string so that none of the items escape.
The string.

is then wrapped several times about the

edges.

illustration 6:

Photograph showing· how cloth, ,~1i th
hair, nails, a.'1.d string, should look
after it is tied v1i th a string.
Photograph ~rom personal collection.

17

When all the items have been §;e.:thered together. then

the search for the appropriate-po?la!:' begins.
course. can be done several days before.

This. of

The tree should

be healthy,c..straight and you."'lg, ho\'rever, not too you."'lg,
for part· of the healing method re~uires that

2

hole be

drilled into the tree; the· tree· m·..:.st be able- to survive
this.

illustration 7:

Photograph s!:ows a suitable poplar
for l'l ail in;_= :::J:J·:m. The poplar is in
the foregrn'J.:."l_- •.
Photograph :'.::Jtained from ovm personal
collection.

18

once the poplar is fou.~d, the healer should remove
a branch measuring approximately 1/2 inch in thickness.
This branch. should then be whittled dow:.'1 to resemble
the shape of the piece of wood shown in the illustration

below.

illustration 8:

The piece-of wood in the picture
is what the whittled wood should
look lit:e.
Photogra-;:ih from ow:'! personal
collection.

lC

•'

./

In \<2.rtgth

o.f weoo:l

The ?lc.ce ,\should measure a."':Jout 11 inches or less 1,: Once

the bra~ch is prepared> the patient is

s~ood

along the

tree and ·the :P·Jint of the top of the r..ead of the patient

is

where the

should be drillttl(use the bric brace).

illtJ.stration 9:

Pl1otograph ~h 1) 1ili~g ~Hh.ere br·ic brace
must drill 2. hol-:.; if the ~1u"bj 9ct is
i:; feet high.
The spot is m'.:l!'ked by
an x.
Photogr:iph from :2:/ ovm personal

collection.

20

The patient need not stand against the tree during
the drilling of the hole.

P~

the drilling begins.

a healing prayer. maleatve_, is whispered.

The prayer

should not be heard by the patient;. it is whispered by

//

the l}.ealer.
The prayer ~egins "Preaveavau na zealyenoy

le.£~ ... "

In :English this prayer roughly says the following.
a.ll nailing-dow:n. cm -a green tree, sendiYlg all
the bad airs out, all things as the effect of
the evil eye, fea;r ... Fermi t in God!. White
flesh do not dry, yellow bon::>s 0n n0t brea.'i.c
red blood do not prick 1 leave out ;Jf all the
veins, capillaries, bones s"ld muscles of all
the flesh, here you have· n0 business; there
is no room. Permit in God. Go into the
v2.rgi:i :fields, into the blue sea ...
I

Amen
After the drilling is complete then the cloth with
the items is pushed into the drilled hole aDd the
whittled branch placed over it (use a harnmer if necessa....-ry
to push the branch in).

The braDch should be securely

placed into the hole so that the cloth a.'1.d its items
are never freed.

When this is finished, the· patient s-tands

in front of the h9aler and the healer places both his
ha."lds on

patient's h~ad,. ·hands should be on :each..:i.side

of the head, nalms pernendicular to the floor.

Both

1').a.'ld3 are then press,ed on the patisnt' s head;

as the

...I,;

•

-

...I..

healer presses the head he repeats the healing prayer

-repetively.

This prayer is the "Nailing Dovm". prayer.

It is whisDered.

After the prayer is finished the

would do .
patient al00 says a prayer', arrY:l:me
/

__.....--

The "Preaveavat" :;or ..the ·".'.'Jail::ng··Dm·m"• j_s one of the
most prevalent forms of Doukhobor folk medicine.

It

cour1teracts negative forces t as the ol.d lady. whom I
interviewed said, "It drives ou.t bad airs or spirits."
"Preaveavat" is often used for c11r2.ng children a."1.d youths
of nervous habits, fears, bedwetting arn:l sttL""lted growth.
It is -,al':vays accompanied with the "Preaveavat" healing
prayer~

which ·is alv1ays wQ.ispered.

Al though "preaveavaj;", when i t was performed on me,

was carried out on . a poplar trse, -'- have learned that some
people have had it done on wooden a.oars, walls or other
wood structures.

Ho;.vever, the healer vvho shmved me how

i tis do~e ~tated emphatically that the use of a poplar tree,
a live tree, is more benefici9]_ an2. effective.

She· also

stated that the poplar tree with its white bark is more
conducive to curing the in di vi dual;. that white was a
purifying colour ..
The elderly lady has performed "Nailing Dmm" on
most' ·_if .not all

of ·her grandchildren

a."1.d great-great-gra..11.dchild'!;'en t

1

.

great...;.gran.dchildren

as •sell as other childr<;n.

She· strongly believes, as do other :-::-el a ti veG, that "pr eaves.-

dure had to be repeated several tim-es before the child
became well.

Most c".'lildren. througho .xt their childhood have
1

'--'

.

•'

22

the healing perfo:CTned on them once every year.
The hea2.er, who contributed i'.he "Preaveav·;:rt" t learned
it ~hen:her husba.11.d suffered a severe accident in his late
t2ens; he was dragged by horses and as a r;:;sul t became
deaf

ffi1.d

facially disfigured.

face

a~d

neck turned

black with bruises, however, after sevsral ·Neeks they .returned
to their normal color. But hi~ face remained disfigured;
his features

v;E?~e

pushed back to his

unrecognizeable for his m:Jutr1 was

ear and there it remained.

During this time, she and her husba11.d, were living

in a Doulchobor cormnunal setting; they could not afford a
doctor.

Thus, an au..11.t arid 1l:,1.cle in British Colun1bia

sent her the "preaveavat" prayer; this woma."'1 was living
in Alberta at the time.

After several :nonths of reading

this prayer, her. husba11.d~ mouth returned to the front

of his face.

Al thoµgh he did not regain his hearLrig, the

fact that his facial disfigurements beca~e ·cured made
this woman a stau..YJ.ch beli.ever in the prayer.

The Grave Cure

.Another important, a'ld very strong folk healing this
wor::tan :Y'"new occurred in the 1920s; she doss not perform

it~

'.

23

. . n:.s healing is "The Grave Cure".

rrr ·

only

&~

In this healing she was

observer, however, she remembers it clearly.· The·

person who psrformed the healing was her aunt.

'.I'.he healing

was done to cure th.e interviewee's infa..rit son, 'Nho was
suffering from the evil eye.
items required~·

three handfuls of dirt, preferably from.three
recent graves
water
Boil the water and/Nhen 1 buhbling) spri..:.'1.kl_e in the
three ha.""1.dfuls of dirt, ·which should. be obt;:;iried that sa'Tle

day.

When the mixture boils rem:Jve it from the stove

fu'1.d let· cool.

The soil at the same time should settle .

...After the soil has settled a.rid the water is

v12.rm

to touch or comfortable to wash in then wash the patient
in this."

During this time a healing prayer is said,

however-, the old woman did not know how it went.

.After

the patient is washed in the water, he should be removed.
In the next· day or so the patient vrould either have a
drastic improvem.ent in heal th- or:, conver~ely) die.

'.:his

healing is '-'a l?-st reso:::-t" he.hling;for the patient
either becomes well or dies.

~--

In a.-viy case if the patient

dies after the healing, this mea'1.s that if the ·healing was
not perf"J:(med t~e patie:!.t wiJuld ·nave died eventually.
this healing ends unnecessary suffering"

Thus

24

The 1Nomant who had this''"Gravc Gure" performed on her
little son, '-"lost" hin the next day.

When her sonwas

4

ten months oldr he had suddenly chaYJ.ged from a lively, bright
and inquisitive child to a ltfeless and very ill little boy.
The woma:.}. believes that the· dra'natic cha.'1.ge ncc.urred b.ecause
of someon~s evil ey~; her little son had be?n alright
until a you.."lg rri~"l had carried him aroun.d.
child became

lifeless~

·That day the

.Fcir the next six months, the

baby suffered from chest pains r constantly criedt ate
yery little ax1d barely moved.

Un.:fortu:iately, at. the sarn.e

time that her son had become ill, Feter Lordly Verigin
decreed tha~ all practicing healers cease; Verigin
had pro~laimed that too· maYJ.y people were practicing the
art of heal~ng and conqequently endaYJ.gering their lives.
Verigin feared that they would become witches.

:I'hus

the woman's child could not·be healed aYJ.d therefore he
grew v;i-ea"l\;er and weaker.

Finally t during. the sixth month

she convinced her aunt to try cure her son.
woman chose YThe Grave Cure".

So the

It was performed that night.

Immediately after ·the child ·was washed in the Gravesand-water, he improved.
and runc"ling arou.."'1.d c

He became lively t began talking

The next day the child's liveliness.

continued, however that night as sh.e '.vas feeding him he
died. ·The -vvoma."'1. fully believes that ·the "Grave Cure"

worked.

Vihispering. Over Water
"Whispering Over ·water" is performed when the person .
desiring to b:=: cured is u.YJ.able to be present at the healing; thus the healer whispers the '"maleatva.'' which is
~

appropriate to curing the absent persons ailnPnt, into
a jug of water.

T}1is water is then used by the patient

to wash his ha"Ylds or face in.

Presumably this healing·

method is succ.essful but not
att2nds his healing.

Removal of Warts
Warts can be removed by several methods.

I have

listed two of them; the string ·method and the potato
method.

Both methods depend upon the moon ~~ase.

The correct moon phasG for removiDg warts.is during a
New moon.

The String .fiiethod:
In the string method, the ,.lart is repeated].y encircled
by a piece of vrhi te string.

The:--i vrhen the ..-:2.rt is complej;ely

enwrapped by the string, th,:; h.ealer must· 'Nhisper a healing
prayer ;:1.,;_:sain.st warts_.

Usually the healer holds the afflicted

limb or whispers very closely to the afflicted. area ..

SElKU?K COLLEGE LIBRARY.
CASTLEGAR> B. C

After

the whispering, the white string is removed a.'1.d buried in
·the grou..rid.

The healing prayer against warts can

be said

at this time.
The Potato Method:
In the potato method, the potato is repeatedly rubbed
over the wart r while the healing pray:er is said,.

Once

the healing prayer is sai·dt it may.be said several times
to increase its power, the potato is buried, usually
though, because it may grow, the potato is flushed
down the toilet.

In these two methods the "tool" used to "remove" the
warts "powers" must rot before the wart disappears. Thus,
whichever method one. uses, either the string or the potato
must rot before the '.Va+t variisheS-..

-----

The Maleatve P..gainst Warts: ~ :· '_, ;
This one is said by the person ·possessing ..warts·..
Yonng moon,.

You have a horn. cf gold,
How clean you are.
So that I may be

(name of the area aff.i.cted 'Ni th warts is given).
As clea.Yl. on my. ______..,......,_ _.:;.____~-----~---..,--,-----~MECS:L! Mono,aoill,,
B TE5E POI 30nOTO~
KAKOVi Tb! 4ViCTb!Vl • "
LJT05 Y M;::H.9. 5bU1vt
TAKV!E Yi1CTb!E

~.·

1

.'

. 27

Ma-riy of the;:people, who have used the 'methods~ either

string or potato, have fou...rtd that the warts do disappear.
However, some report that the warts sometimes return b.ut·

if the procedure is repeated the warts
again disappear.
.
.
Other people, who have tried removing warts by these met~1.ods
have f ou.i.'1.d t:'.lat. their warts remained as they r..v~re.

Thus

this folk remedy is not always successful,

Gapyachea Bsnke
Another form of healing is oy--using "Ga:pyachea Banke''
-:----------------

or "Hot Can$", also· k11own as "::-Iot Glasses",.

----

This folk .

medicine was obtained from a SeV8nty-.fiv3 year old woman..
Although she knew how the healing was perfor::led, she had
never done it herself.

However, her.sister, who practiced

heal in~ often performed the healing o::i t!tis ·soman. "Hot
.
Cans'.' are used to assuage pain. It is used to remove
arthritis, rheumatism and other types of pain._
Items

required~

1 ca.'1. or glass

l small piece of white cloth~ approximately
two inches x two inches
white string
a slice of potato
a dish of keros2ne
matches

28

Peel a
half inch.
cloth.

?Otat~

and cut a cube about one-half inch by one-

Place the potato slice into the v/hi-te cotton

Then bring.the edges of the cloth together; thus

enclosing the potato pieceo
tightly shut.

With string tie the cloth

.After tying the string, pour some kerosene

into a shallow dish, then dip the edges of _the cloth:
into the kerosene.

illustration 10:

This diagram sh:)ws -r.,,vhere the
cloth should be.dipped. The colored
area represents the kerosene.
../

Onc·e the edges are moistened , place the cloth on,~the
afflicted area which is producing paiµ; th·e potato· should
be incontact with this sore area, the cloth edges
should be
at

·11

.

sta~ding

.L·
i~_us~ra~ion

perpendicular to the pain area.

(look

11)
_ _

Once the cloth with the potato.is resting on the
area, light the ker:-osene dipped edges.

pai~

As the e9-ges ,burst

into fla:.i12s., cover· ·the burning cloth 'Ni th a- glass or can,
drinking-rim dovm so that it. touches the skin.
the fla.'Tles extinguish ( s.ee illustratio::'l li).

Consequently
Vlhen the

.'

..

~
l·

or glass

illust.ration; 11':

.... Hot :Can" !
Diagrarn. shows how the
cloth with the potato should sit on
the sore area. The can is shown.
also. T'1.is is the vvay it should be
:placed over the·: cloth a.Yld potato.

JO

fla.'!les

ex~inguish

a.""l effect occurst such that the area

u..nder the g1ass or can becomes reddened.

What is actually

happening is that the flames burn out the oxygen thus
creati.:.vig

2.

blood to

~-Jol

sw:~tion-like

affect \vhich tends to cause the

in this area.

It is the pooling of the

blood whic~ is believed to cause ~he pain to cease.
"Hot

The

Can" treatment is usually combined wt th a healing

prayer which is whispered_.

The p:;ayer c::::'l be any type of

maleatva. as long as the maleatva and the cause or what

is believed to bein·g causing the pai:i
The 'NJman who contributed t:his healing said. that when
her sister performed the healing on her foot,which was
constantly aching, the pain disappeared a.""ld has never
·~Gapyachea B3nke~· •. the

returned.

·Nomm1 said,· ''draw out

the pain and the bad air or spirit in the area '.Vhich has
the pain.

Lancing Ca.Yls
The "lancing ca.1s" are carri·ed out in the sa:.'!le way
as "gapyac::-1ea banl:e", however, when the blood reddens the
skin7 the gla3s is removed a""ld the skin is lanced.

Lmces,

were a spe :::ial ·type of k.YJ.if~ that were used in Russia for
such

trea-::~:snt;3;

they had ceveral sharp points which nU...Ylct'..tred

To get the same affect as la..Ylcing.. several small

the skin.

cuts are ::a.::le in the "suction" area by~ :Y...nif e.
skin ble:::c::o
be gone.

321:]

The pierced

1/rhen the bleeding ceases the p3.in should

:::..oncing is a stro:lger medicine than "Hot Cans"

31

'·,

for when the person bleeds, the blood is believed to take
away a.YJ.y remaining poison and "bad air".

The womant who contributed "the lsncing ca."1.s" and
.7>Le: t:/._;_.J_.;

"the hot ca.YJ.s;;, whole-heartedly believes they \';ork.

. *'

It is observed that in 1:2E::: "supersti tio'..13." healing
specific rituals, having symbolic
practiced.

significa."'1.~e,

were

It is. also observed that u:nexpla!."'lable cures
I

occurred, as well as U(1explSrl'lable happenings t

exa."Ilple

~-

the '!Grave Cure".
In the ;';£:!eayeavat!', vvhi te mat:erial 2nd. i te:ns t such
as the tree Color (its bark), the String, the cloth, 'Nere
required.

This stress on white probaoly sy:::_°2'.)lized

a purification, which appe2.red to

healing.

object of the

There ·v1as<-~a1so a stress placed on the physi.-

cal appearance of the tree.

This r;iay have been because,

·when the white cloth containing the nail-s a.""1.C: other i terns
we'(f!. put in the poplar, -Gthe person bee a.11e s::_,'TI-:Jolically,

and· by Doukhobor belief, almost physically attached to
the tree.

Thus a healthy tree insured that the tree

continued ·growing and as a result so ·would the child·--both
physically and psychologically.
In ~'The Grave Cure", the use of grave· dir:-t al'ld water

probably symbolized death and birth~

The water was either

representing clea.'1.sing or the ,aaniotic fluid, mayb_e a
CDmbination of the tvvo.
b-:Jlized death.

Conversely) the grave dirt sym....:

Since the ritual is believed to either

the bat:iing of the patient in this ·water that had pre-

vio!.J.sly conta_ined grave dirt could have represented a
choice for the individual, either to die· or. to live."

33

In the "Whispering Over Water", the ':'later again
probably was the cleansing a.'1.d removal of ailrr.ents.
Th.e: treatment of warts, may also be explai.-vied
symb9lically.

The white string acted to

Conversely the potato served to ensnare the w32't "spirit".
Since both treatments stress.burying the items, the
potato or string, this represents the·" death" of the
wart for when the potato or string rot
had been taken from the wart also rots a."'1.d disappears •
Consequently, when the "spirit of the v1a:ct" di es the wart

____-·

also "dies".

In th-:; "Hot Caris", a '::hi te clot::t avid string wa3
again used.

Their significa.YJ.ce was probably the

as in the "Preaveavat".

same~

The burning of par_t of the cloth

may have also had symbolic meaning; it may have meant

purification and cleansing.

In Doukhobor cul t ire fire
1

.
. .p•
..).."
represenvs c 1 eansing_
o~ puri~icavion.
..L.

The potato since

it removed the "bad air or spirit" probably .represented
the capture of the ailment•s

~s;pirit".

In ~Lancing Cans"

the symbolism 'Has~ probably the sac11e as "Hot Cans".
Thus it il1as

obs~rved

that various aspects of the

"superstitious_" healing had 3pecial mea.-r-iings c
mea-viings v1ere gath9red fro::n various healers.

It was

also. observed that unexpla'lable cures OC·~urred a.---id less
e:z:plaJ.o.ble happenings.

.

J4

'

------Maleatve

"Tvialeatve" or healing prayers usually express verbally
the. symbolic mea.-riings of the "superstitious" type f.ealing
methods.·

Like .the healing methods, the malea~ve itself

ca."1. contain sy-riholic meanings.·

.------

filaleatve are almost always read at a whispe:i;:- so that

other· persons .can not heB.2:' the woriis.

Kalea:tYe- are the
--------

most sacred part of the Doukhobor folk healings.

This is

because the ~ often entreats Go1 or Jesus or a-ri
an.gel to help heal the ailing person.

Maleat7es are

not alvmys only healing prayers; some roaleatves are
1

.

..

.

a_._so prayers.

.

Conversely. m&"'ly prayers can be used

in the place of ~aleatves.
There are two types of Maleatve•s,

One type is the

maleatve v1hich no longer can ·be understood fo!' its words
.'

have become almost nonensical c

2

The other ty:;ie is still

understandable.
The Doui~hobor maleatve deals with both psychological
and physiologica/- illnessg_s ..There are maleatves to protect
·a person against warts, against fear, against the evil eye,
against crying, against appendicitis, agai.n3t colds,
against witches, against fires .a.'1.d the fear of fires. against
bleeding. an.d against _accidently acquiring
illness.

a~other

persons

35

''

Virtually all healers/ vrho use maleatves have memorized
them. :j_:A :person ·who is: a healer almost always learns a
self
~~ to protect him~from acquiring a ~atienis ilL'1.ess.
I•laleatve.s c.:a.'1. be used by all persons; they need not be
'if... heale~

Most elderly Doukhobors }mow several maleatves; usually
the .maleatves
._

w_r:~re · lea...""'ned

in .-parenthood or w·h.e.,,'1. grandchil-

dren were born.

-

Maleatves, because o.f their sacrec'L."1.ess 2nd because

there are always individuals in soC!iety who tend to insult
things they do not Q'lderstand, 82'."e almost never made public.
Most of my maleatves were obtained from
year old man.

He is one of the ·few

211

eighty-

Doukhob·Grs, who

has "tvri tten down sever al healing prayers.

However,

because his hand;Nri ting was d.ifficul t ·to read a..'1d his
speach impair.ed by a stroke, I did not tra.YJ.slate -:; ·
.the prayers.

But· I·have included them in the essay in

the form I rec.ei ved them in~
The following mal eatv~ protects again.st tmdesired
hair. (Next page)

36

'

'_- {7"--__
_

;~-~----f

i-----~.

i

··-· --·.

;

-* : - - - - - - - · - · - · - -

-

-------1--------- -- - -- - ·--..
. ..
-- -

-- ------------ ------- .

---

·-.... -

···-.
. - - ·-

-._
-·· .... -:.'. .....
'.

-··-------

37

~on

:protects a :per.:o. '"

~

.
-'agains L.

, e rnal<=>atve oelow·
T n -'-~
h 2-t I could
"l-ceal" t -·lY
t-ranslation
of
.-:'he
0"--i
ui,,.... eal •• .
~ ..

"-'- _,_
k; ioe::ra..rn -:f
'"'at
of
the
- _,_ ~
t
S
make wa
H

.

,
1"1noer nrotects
T.h"is -nea
-· o pray_
l:'

~ from,
a :p ers oii
-·.. vari·ous

.:nn"' , 1di"n.cr lightning.

..eo·

types of' J:ire,

J.;.

·-o

~..l.·-

The :prayer is used

also when a person fears

__

r---.

,

J/~-?""i1&c.

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l::"'K-<-- v-fi/-~...P~--r&.d:'~-y. -~- -~- '

~ :.:· _...,..'--"' v~t.4?: ----f-l_,R.-???-t:.. -- .--rrl tf/c./cJL - -?;ti .9< c) _..e. -?~-LGJ-./zc0.J-'------- -fa-·'-'/:_·. -bC-u-~~/t:-..A-.A---~-~-"(__l/.:;;/~ ----fcd:----:n4--l~--?GL___ ..;;,..J;z'?.?f.,£___
· ~_e e. .#pc_ ---/-1-e.$1-;?!- __ Jp;__,e #t!A.. ¢P.: cw <?=j .P-=-L ~ _--- --- -- --~'; t2-v< /-'J7 _____,_, ,s?.-L-??•"'' ~
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39

as:rainst bleeding.·~ It
rts a person ---0
This.~ro e~
d y.J.-ornal
.
-i-,1
P.d.;no- from internal an e~-"~.
that. staps w-e ~ ._,_ o is a prayer
t

W01.l..YJ.d.S •
....

.~·""-·~
- ...... -·-··~-

4-0

---------

The most used maleatve are usually maleatve against
fear a""ld ·against the evil eye.

The following maleatve

is to reassure the person that there is nothing to fear
in this world.

This prayer is· against fear.

T heard

this prayer fr.::m my. grandmother, who reads it 2very
evening arid every morning; it tends to

assuag;~

he:::- fear.

The prayer was translated by .Ronari Piontkovsl~y; recorded
by Pionkovsky, in Verigin, S 2.Skatchewan. July 1970. J
The prayer, al th.Jugh usually rea:i tp the p2rso~. suffering
from the malady, cari be read to oneself.

£1Ir. mealing

writes that it is read by one :?erson to anothe::: as an

attempt to.
convince the hearer of a common bond of
loving care 1-Lviking the cii vine personage·s,
the pres cmt speaker ax1d the hearer, a..D'.i
the earth itself.

·.
rocno..Q!ll 5J'ArocnOBM! f!OM.0.HV'I_, rocno,QV!_, l\A~S: ,QABvtaA !fl BC!O KPGTOCTb Ef"O.
KAK OH YKPAWAI'. HE60 vi 3EMJ1f0_, PEKfll_, MOPE_, rOPb! Iii XOJM:~!.
YPATV!_,
rocnowi_, PA6E SOJKbEVi - - - · ~ATYWKA f!PE<;:B;.7;TA7. 6010P0,01UA_, KAK Tbt
fl0'10rA HV1CYCA XPfllCTA cnOPO,[(YJTb_, YCKOPMViTbJ socnm·1Tb - TA.K &.! Tb! iv;Of"J'.A
OT PASE 50Y.SEili _,- - -- CTPAXV1-nEPEnOJlOXV1 B35ffb Iii B Cbf?WJ C5'·tJ10
f10CJ!ATb. OT PASE 60JKbEf/1
f10PAIKEHHOfO,. KPEU!,Er.HOV!_, tv:OJYiTBEHHO/:.
N"".AHb ~ t\M~t'-!b ! A.MViHb !

41

The translation of the maleatve on the previous page.
Lord bless us!
gentleness..

"' .
Remember, Lord, King David a.~d all '.alS

Row he made beautiful the heavens a..11.d the

earth, riv?rs r seas, mou.ntains and little hills. Tame
(na":lr-e of perso::-i)
(them), LDrd, for God's servant
---··---·----Mother, most-holy Bearer-of-God, as yo_u were able to
bear Jesus Christ, to feed (Him), to give (iiin) drink-(na.!le of person)
so may you be able 'Ni th God's ser-:.,.ant
to ta.lee a·Nay his fright-tU.i!!Ul t

a.~d

ssn::i (it) off into

the green earth, (away) from G·Y:P s 3er;ra.">J.t
born, baptizedr prayerful.

A~en!

A:nsn!

____

(n21L.o of person) ,.
A~en!

4

42

-

The maleatve against the evil eye. whi::h I have heard
is one that was ·translated by Ro:nan Pion~:ovsky, recorded
by Pionkovsky in Verigin Saskatchewa"?-, ;0.J_y 1970: 5

This prayer is to cure illnesses caused ':Jy a person• s
evil eye.

The evil eye is blamed for a.'1 illness usually

if the. the illness occurs in the

person or if the ·illness ca.vi not be explain,3d.

Chiidr.en,

especially babies, are believed t~ be ~ore susceptible to

the evil eye.

Thus some. Doukhobor v,;·omen do n8t allow their

younger· childr?n, especially a'iy child less thar1 six weeks
to be viev1ed by str<IDgers and even by relai:iT,res.

Some

children are protected in this way u.r1til their first b.irth-

'I ear.
The CoriL11on illnesses associ2.ted 1Ni tr:. the evil eye are:
a cha'1g2 in a child.' s behavior> that is if the child becomes

morose an.d despondent, convulsions in childre:'1.: if child
stutters or if any physical chaDges are seen which can not
be.explained.
adults.

These illnesses can also be

contract~d

by

There are ma~y more illnesses associated with

the evil
I:Ct'·'.;·tllYVl PASA 601.\bErO
OT r JTA3Y,,. OT CEPOIO,,. OT LJEPHOIO,,. OT
~?ACHOIO,,. OT ~CHOro,,. OT ~OCTHOro,,. OT PA,QOCGOrO,,. MEXOCTHOiO (?),,.

:-:.::;.:.;.3v;c1xoro. !'-'ATb TE65l MOr;lA cnOPO,lJ,Yffb,,. 5' 1-;01Y OTX0,11l!iTb,,.
?E~EHSE,,. CJTOBO rJIAron 60/Kll!IA.
60rY HJl..WEMY C.JlASA!

,,.

0

PYKA

4J

Translation of the maleatva on the previous page.

Have mercy on God's servant .. (narne)

from the eye, from

the grey (eyeL from the black (eye), from the .red (eye),
from the clear (eye)> from the greedy (eye)r fro;n the
joyful (eye), from the inhospitable (?)
hatef-:.ll (eye).

(eye)~

from the

tilother was able -1:'.:) give you birth 1 I

arn

able to cure you.

The haYid (is) the say2_ng,_ the work (is·)

the word. of God.

Glory be. to our G0d!

7

"
Cause-Effect TypB ~ealing

--

.In "cause-effect type healing" the healing is not
deueniant on the maleatve.
...

said

fo:;_~

Al tho'J.6h the -mal eatve .maybe

this type of healing t it is not nee essa..:...,...,.,J.

rtov·:ever. most DoukJ1obors agree· that

a ---·---I"'.laleatve

"does ~1.ot hurt."
In this type of healin·g, th·"' healer is 2.ble to
establish the physical Ca1fSe of the illness 2r1d thus prescribe a "phys_ical" cure rath:~r tha:."l a cure dependant on
various· specific ri t'-lals and pray,srs.

-Js;...ially t}1e type

of illnesses treated are burns, since they ca""l be physically
dete~mined;

bee stings

1

cu-ts

ciJ.1.:..l

sc1~apes ~

In s .J:ne cases,

arthritis no longer is explained "by para..psyc:'1.ological
terms a"ld · th J.s cure:3 for ·it·are beco:'.!ling riiore and more cause1

effect centered.
'I'he types of medicines us8d in cause-effect healing
is usually easy to obtain a.Yld relatively cheap..

The medicine

is usually home-made, either '.::.from . . . bought ingredients or

ingredients obtained from the cou::;.try-side such as roots,.
ber.cies ~ herbs,· various pl311ts, rocks, and even clay.
This ty;.e of healing is much aore easier to obtain and

guarded; this is because the healing is not considered
sacred,

45

Cause-effect healing• like other healings, is
passed down from generation to serieration.

But like

"supers ti tio'-lS" healing its importai.""lc e has
in the past thirty to forty years.

To some extent this·

· n '3aling is practiced even less tha.Yi ~~supers-ti ticiu? healing".
This is because medical science is usually ,_·._or thought .to be

more effective. in curing ailments than foll~ ca J.se-effect
1

healing.

Also because it

~q_~ks

distL-1.ction; .in "super-

sti ticus healing,. the maleatve aI1d. rituals set the healing
apart froTa conventional healing. "Supers ti ti o:.J.s healing"
appears to

of~er

.a different approach to ruedicine.

Thus

healers are more enthusiastic in acquiring hes.ling. of a
"super~ti tious"

nature rather tha..'1.. a cause-effect type

of healing.
The healing methods which were .collected. for this
category· were:

i)

lime-oil treatment.

ii), clay treatment . .

Lime-oil Treatment
This is a home remedy wh~ch has been in tb.e pas~
very effective in healing burns and preventing burn
scars from f')rming.

The medicine was obtained from

my father, who obtained it. fr·om ·his aun.t.

The original

"recipe" was lo3t a few years ago, ho·wever -;:;:nis recipe

.
' .
.
is a close approximation of .....
t>rle 1ngrec1i9n""ts.

I~

has

been tested. A maleatva ca."'l be said when the mixture
is applied to the burn but it is not necesss.ry~
Ingredients required:
lime (can be bought. at any store
garden eguipr:Ient)
olive oil
water
., .

Pour the water into a pot and put in hot J...lme.
the mixture boils,

off the water

Once

allow it to cool and settle dovm.

Drain

a.rid save it for it will be used in the

recipe.
To one part of the lime-water add one part olive.oil.
The :mixture should be kept in an airtight container.

·before usingc

Shake

This raixture is applied to ·the burD"

If the :nixture tends to dry the b~.irn too much add
so:-ne more olive oil; if the mixture tends to cause the
•

I

•

bun1 t·'.) b.<? toJ moist add more lime .vater.
1

works on almo3t a.'1.y type of "burn, exa.'TIPle

This remedy
oil~

boiling water.

Th2

° lime-oil treatment" was tried by my sister, 'Nho

suffered second d.egree oil burns on her entire right. hand.
The doctor, who treated her warned her of possible scarring,

yet vlhen she returned to him a few weeks late::::- r her. hands
wer.e u..viscarred and had healed much faster tha.."l expected.
The doctor was amazed.

Clay ·rreat:n:;nt
"Clay treatment" is used to .3.ssuage arth::::'i-tic pain,
rheumatic pain

a~d

other types

pain.

o~

Eot clay 9

wrapped in clothlis applied to the afflicted .a:;::-ea,
lmtil the pain disappears.
rep8ate~

for

seve~al

This treatment may have t0T:be

months before

a..~y differe~ce

is felt,

however, some people report that their pain actualiy
diappears in just a frc;w months.
ent individuals.

Thus time varies for differ-

This treatment is not always successful"

The "C·:)..ay treatment•• was used on a two year-old child
~Nho

was suffering from a ·dehaoilitating children's arthritis.

The arthritis becaxne so bad that doctors at t11e Va..'Ylcouver
Arthritic

Centr~

warned her :parents of possible crippling;

she was put on aspiri1:J
the pain.
ri, ,.,.,i···n·~
'...t1.,...1. .l..._.:. Q

+1->
~
u ... J.~

&u.t the aspirin

did not alieviate

Thus her parents began o
a-ivinoher "clav
treatments"
- -- 0
J
day a.'1.d during the evening.

Six months later, her

foot which had beco::ne useless from arthritis began function-

ing.
dent.

Taday ·if she suffers fro.:n arthrit],s, i t is not eviTh:~

child is now seven years old.

•·>
From my interviews an.d research, it was seen how the

"supers-ti tious" healing aYld "cause-effect" healing
from each other.

diffe~ed

It was also made evident h:iw "super-

stitious" methods differed from maleatvee

From my

3ources I lea.."'Tied why fev1 individuals practice Doukhobor
foll~

medicine.

In doing this paper. I

p:::-epared

dis~overed

·interviews a.'1.:l a'Yl inter:;:ireter (my r.wm) Hsre very
1

\Vere related to me, they tend.:?d t:J often stray from the

object of the interview.

--~

T~is

paper w.as

.

I

-·

0x.,....
eri 0~-nc 0 /
--~ ~
.

_,,/~-·-

.-

Rsf'8re~-ices

1.

F .. rel. ·.rnealing, ·Our People's Way, University of
1972, pp. 298.

2.

roid.) pp. 291.

Pennsylva~ia,

.

Ibid. , pp •

JO?.

4.

Ib.id. , pp.

JO?.

5-.

Ibid. , pp.

J05.

o.

Ibid •• pp.

J05.

7.

Ibid., pp.

J05.

,...,

.)

/

50
l

'

Bibliography

Mealing t F .lYI. Our People's Way, University of Pennsylvania,
1972, Vol r.
Taras off, Koozma J. Traditional D~:rnkhobor Fol}~v1ays,
Nati.onal Museums of Canada, Ottawa, 1977" _./
t-~/